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Como desventajas carece de instrucciones para un uso avanzado del programa. Although from to GDP was This amount stood in stark contrast to only 0. The growth was attributable to escalating debt, not necessarily slowing growth. Moreover, Argentina is a federal country, allowing provinces to borrow money independently from the federal government, but few economists noted this eco- nomic phenomenon.
As the federal government slashed spending to provinces, they too had to borrow money. Larry Summers , former U. According to the Confederation of Health Professionals, an Argentine civic group, as early as , the government had initiated deep cuts in spending on education and healthcare, including reductions in the salaries of doctors and nurses Gaudin, On top of cutting spending, the government increased interest rates in an effort to maintain dollar reserves.
The policy of increasing interest rates had already been used to keep pesos in the country. Although Argentina performed better than other emerging economies, it suffered from investor fears during a series of crises in emerging economies: the Mexican crisis , the Southeast Asian crisis , and the Russian crisis Between and , Argentine interest rates almost doubled Buscaglia, The government also turned to more state privatizations to collect revenue.
Argentina had been a shining example of successful neoliberal capitalism during a time of economic growth.
Argentina had to cut more spending and raise revenue, policies that had failed to have positive results previously and had contracted the economy further. Would Argentina pull out of the convertibility plan, causing a depreciation of the peso? Would Argentina default on its debt? Specu- lators began dumping their Argentine pesos on the international market Hanke, Peso holders were also turning in their pesos.
Economic Implosion The Argentine economy imploded. Ordinary citizens looted grocery stores merely to obtain staple food products. The provinces, strapped for cash because of their own lack of revenue and a decrease in funds from the federal government, began printing their own money. By the end of Argentina had few options. Support currently has come from a broad ideological spectrum and wide array of sources, each emphasizing the different objectives a hard peg—dollarization or monetary unionism—can achieve.
First, South American leaders support the creation of a monetary union. ALBA members have already released el Sucre, a virtual currency that allows certain transactions with signatory countries.
Luis A. They argue that, because a MERCOSUR currency on its own would not be competitive in the world market, linking the common currency to the dollar would give the economic union a competitive advantage. Other economists and scholars advance similar suggestions for Latin America. Others focus on monetary discipline, eliminating the erratic spending and devaluations that hurt the economy see Romero, , for an argument on Ecuador.
ALBA members regard a currency union as a way to counter U. If forming a union to compete with the United States has been successful, as ALBA members contend, a monetary union would strengthen this objective. They observe that depre- ciations and devaluations could lead to long-term consequences such as poorer access to world markets. After Ecuador dollarized its economy in , it became one of the fastest-growing economies in the hemisphere Emanuel, Being part of an RIA also can be collectively advantageous for member countries.
Internationally, members can exercise more power collectively than each could individually. Policy makers have to be aware of several economic challenges.
This is important for South American countries, most of which have economies that depend on exports. Imports naturally fell too, correcting the imbalances. Brazil also experienced this correction when policy makers decided to break with the dollar. Overvaluation is an important and genuine fear for South America.
It can occur not only with the dollar, but with local currencies as well. The currency becomes so overvalued that other exports become uncompetitive in the interna- tional market. Oil production has a drastic effect on its currency. Although scholars continue to debate the extent to which Dutch disease has affected Venezuela and the extent to which the current government has been able to handle the problem see Hofer, , it exists as a serious policy problem that countries want to avoid.
Dollarization has produced similar effects. Most important, dollarization has eliminated any foreign exchange advantages the country could have had for local producers.
Individual Monetary Policies Monetary union enthusiasts tend to neglect the pivotal importance of indi- vidual macroeconomic policies. Countries often take the necessary policy options they have for granted. Independent monetary policies are important not only to implement policies an economy may need, but also to avoid policies an economy does not need.
Exchange Rate Policy Options for South America When a country forfeits its monetary independence, its economy is often suscep- tible to the policies of other, often more-powerful ones. This is crucial for dollar enthusiasts. Former U. Treasury Secretary — and current Director of the National Eco- nomic Council Larry Summers stated that the United States would not accom- modate countries that dollarized their economies.
Federal Reserve Goldstein, , pp. The problem of being dominated by a more powerful country is not a major concern only for countries that enter into a hard peg with the dollar. Entering a South American monetary union would be tantamount to a similar hierarchical structure.
Smaller countries would inevitably be at the mercy of the bigger ones. Paraguay and Uruguay, the smaller countries of MERCOSUR, would have their monetary policies dominated by Brazil and Argentina, and they have often leveled criticisms against their more populous and economically powerful neigh- bors for unfairly dominating the RIA. Being in a monetary union would be more likely to exacerbate these issues than to resolve them. Policy makers in both countries had to confront different sets of problems.
Different economic needs are usually the norm. The economic remedy for one country may be completely inappropriate for another. Policy makers from each country have different concerns, and similar concerns may have to be addressed differently because of variation.
When a country dollarizes or enters into a hard peg, it risks losing its competitive edge with its major trading partner and losing new and diverse opportunities.
As world trade increases, countries are able to take advantage of new markets. This is particularly important for South American nations.
Relatively new trading partners such as China and India offer great opportunities to diversify their trading options and exportable products.
In addition to foreign direct investment from China to Latin America and vice versa , these opportunities entail the exportation of products such as aluminum, zinc, soya, and oilseed and cereals. An overvalued currency or the lack of individual monetary policies could undermine these opportunities. Countries could become uncompetitive, losing out to more competitive third parties accessing the enormous market.
Argentina experienced an enormous increase in exportation after untying the peso from the dollar. Figure 3. There are many emerging markets for which they can compete internationally. This has been the case for Ecuador. Although economists and policy makers have lauded its dollarization, years later, the country still faces persistent external debt problems that cannot be resolved through dollarization.
Argentina had a similar experience, declaring in Decem- ber that the country could not meet its debt payments. What Type of Flexible Exchange Rate? A currency board chooses a band that serves as the range in which the value of the currency can move.
The logic here is that countries should not forfeit their options to begin with. Countries should avoid hard pegs because they become anchored to the currency policies of others.
Fixed exchange rates, monetary unions, and dollarization would fail to remedy the most urgent long-term economic imbalances and cause more problems than they solve, but this is clearly not the last word on this contentious subject. About the Author Charles G. The author would like to thank Professor Janis Kapler of University of Massa- chusetts at Boston for help with this article. He is principally known for his pivotal role in the Battle of Ayacucho For a study of those performed for the Americas, see Grandes and Reisen Member countries have not been able to achieve many of the EU successes in integration, such as the formation of a workable supranational parliament.
For an in-depth discussion on the methodologi- cal differences see Huerta References ALBA. Currency unions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2 , — A strategy for managing foreign exchange rates. Financial Times. Banega, C.
The new regionalism in South America. Schulz, J. Soderbaum Eds. New York: St. Bazzan, G. Latin American Research Review, 43, 84— Venezuela: Universidad de las Andes. Buscaglia, M. Policy Reform, 7 1 , 43— Calvo, G. Fixing for your life. Cardoso, E. Roett Eds. Cavallo: de mimado en Wall Street a desempleado Argentino. Economic clusters or cultural commons? The limits of competition-driven development in the Ecuadorian Andes.
Latin American Research Review, 44 1 , — Dollar up as U. New York Times, p. Dri, C. Latin American Policy, 1 1 , 52— Comunidad Andina: Documents. Foreign Affairs, 81 2 , 8— Economic social study series: Economic growth in Paraguay. Inter-American Development Bank. Ferrari-Filho, F. Why does it not make sense to create a monetary union in Mercosur? A Keynesian alternative proposal. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, 24 2 , — Fratianni, M.
Gaudin, A. NACLA, p. Gilpin, K. Goldstein, M. Grandes, M. Hanke, S. Wall Street Journal, p. Cato Institute. Why Argentina crashed—and is still crashing. Hira, A. Distributional effects of dollarisation: The Latin American case.
Third World Quarterly, 25 3 , — Hofer, J. Venezuela: Economic populism or pragmatism. Venezuela Analysis. Kirchner and Krugman: A conversation. Kronberger, R. Lavagna, R.
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